Abstract
Large language models leave model-specific traces in their generated text, but it remains unclear how finely these fingerprints can distinguish related models and which signals remain informative as obvious cues are reduced. We study this through fingerprint resolution, considering both model resolution, from different families to distilled and adapted variants, and signal resolution across behavioral, stylometric, lexical, and semantic evidence. We progressively suppress surface cues, paraphrase outputs, vary the amount of available text, and test generalization across prompt distributions and languages. Our results show that fingerprints persist beyond broad family differences, remaining detectable in distilled models and even LoRA adaptations of the same base model. Although attribution weakens as surface and lexical cues are altered, substantial model-specific signal remains. These signals transfer across prompt sources and languages, with semantic representations proving most robust across languages. These findings show that model identity is recoverable at multiple resolutions, but that recoverability depends on model similarity and the evidence available in the text.
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URL
https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.28434
